The genetic codes of all known organisms encode the same common twenty amino acids as building blocks for the biosynthesis of proteins. The side chains of these amino acids comprise a surprisingly limited number of functional groups—nitrogen bases, carboxylic acids and amides, alcohols, and a thiol group (and in rare cases, selenocysteine (see, e.g., Bock, A., et al., (1991) Mol. Microbiol. 5:515-520) or pyrrolysine (see, e.g., Srinivasan, G., et al., (2002) Science 296:1459-1462; Hao, B., et al., (2002) Science 296:1462-1466)), the remainder being simple alkanes or hydrophobic groups. The ability to augment the genetically encoded amino acids with new amino acids, for example, amino acids with metal chelating, fluorescent, redox active, photoactive or spin-labeled side chains, would significantly enhance the ability to manipulate the structures and functions of proteins and perhaps living organisms themselves. Recently, it was reported that by adding new components to the translational machinery of Escherichia coli, one could site-specifically incorporate with high fidelity a number of unnatural amino acids into proteins in vivo. See, e.g., Wang, L., et al., (2001) Science 292:498-500; Wang, L., et al., (2002) J. Am. Chem. Soc. 124:1836-1837; and, Zhang, Z., et al., (2002) Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. Engl. 41:2840-2842.
The keto group is ubiquitous in organic chemistry, and participates in a large number of reactions from addition and decarboxylation reactions to aldol condensations. Moreover, the unique reactivity of the carbonyl group allows it to be selectively modified with hydrazide and hydroxylamine derivatives in the presence of the other amino acid side chains. See, e.g., Cornish, V. W., et al., (1996) J. Am. Chem. Soc. 118:8150-8151; Geoghegan, K. F. & Stroh, J. G. (1992) Bioconjug. Chem. 3:138-146; and, Mahal, L. K., et al., (1997) Science 276:1125-1128. Although present in cofactors (see, e.g., Begley, T. P., et al., (1997) in Top. Curr. Chem., eds. Leeper, F. J. & Vederas, J. C. (Springer-Verlag, New York), Vol. 195, pp. 93-142), metabolites (see, e.g., Diaz, E., et al., (2001) Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev. 65:523-569), and as a posttranslational modification to proteins (see, e.g., Okeley, N. M. & van der Donk, W. A. (2000) Chem. Biol. 7, R159-R171), this important functional group is absent from the side chains of the common amino acids. The addition of the carbonyl side chain to an amino acid would allow proteins comprising this amino acid to participate in a large number of reactions from addition and decarboxylation reactions to aldol condensations, e.g., to be selectively modified with hydrazide and hydroxylamine derivatives.
The keto group provides a unique chemical reactivity not present in the common twenty amino acids due to its ability to participate in addition reactions involving either the carbonyl group or the acidic Cα position. This group also provides an alternative to the natural amino acid cysteine for the selective modification of proteins with a large variety of chemical reagents. The reactive thiol group of cysteine has been extensively used to attach various biophysical probes to proteins. See, e.g., Creighton, T. E. (1986) Methods Enzymol. 131:83-106; Altenbach, C., et al., (1990) Science 248:1088-92; Brinkley, M. (1992) Bioconjug. Chem. 3:2-13; Giuliano, K. A., et al., (1995) Annu. Rev. Biophys. Biomol. Struct. 24:405-34; Mannuzzu, L. M., et al., (1996) Science 271:213-6; Griffin, B. et al., (1998) Science 281:269-272; Wu et al., (2000) Methods Enzymol. 327:546-64; and, Gaietta, G., et al., (2002) Science 296:503-7. Unfortunately, the labeling of single cysteine residues is often complicated by the presence of more than one accessible cysteine residue in a protein, as well as exchange reactions of the resulting disulfide in the presence of free thiol. Therefore, the availability of a nonproteinogenic amino acid with orthogonal reactivity makes possible selective modification of protein in cases where a single cysteine cannot be selectively labeled, where two different labels are needed, and where a disulfide linkage may not be sufficiently stable. The carbonyl group reacts readily with hydrazides, hydroxylamines, and semicarbazides under mild conditions in aqueous solution, and forms hydrazone, oxime, and semicarbazone linkages, respectively, which are stable under physiological conditions. See, e.g., Jencks, W. P. (1959) J. Am. Chem. Soc. 81, 475-481; Shao, J. & Tam, J. P. (1995) J. Am. Chem. Soc. 117:3893-3899.
Several methods have been developed to selectively incorporate the carbonyl group into peptides and proteins. Initially, an aldehyde was introduced at the N-termini of peptides by oxidizing N-terminal serine or threonine with periodate, followed by coupling to biotin and fluorescent reporters through a hydrazone linkage. See, e.g., Geoghegan, K. F. & Stroh, J. G. (1992) Bioconjug. Chem. 3:138-146. This method is, however, restricted to the N-terminal modification of proteins. Solid phase peptide synthesis was later employed for the preparation of peptide segments containing either a hydrazide or hydroxylamine, which subsequently react with a branched aldehyde core matrix to form peptide dendrimers (see, e.g., Shao, J. & Tam, J. P. (1995) J. Am. Chem. Soc. 117:3893-3899; Rose, K. (1994) J. Am. Chem. Soc. 116:30-33), or with a keto containing peptide segment to form synthetic proteins (see, e.g., Canne, L. E., et al., (1995) J. Am. Chem. Soc. 117:2998-3007). This approach is generally applicable to peptides or small proteins of less than 100 residues, but is limited by the difficulties associated with the synthesis of large peptides or proteins.
An in vitro biosynthetic method has also been used to incorporate the keto group into proteins. See, e.g., Cornish, V. W., et al., (1996), supra. In this method, the unnatural amino acid containing the keto group is chemically acylated to an amber suppressor tRNA. When the acylated tRNA and the mutant gene are combined in an in vitro extract capable of supporting protein biosynthesis, the unnatural amino acid is selectively incorporated in response to a UAG codon. This method requires the suppressor tRNA to be chemically aminoacylated with the unnatural amino acid in vitro, and the acylated tRNA is consumed as a stoichiometric reagent during translation and cannot be regenerated, resulting in low protein yields.
To further expand the genetic code and increase the diversity of unnatural amino acid structures with, e.g., a keto amino acid, that can be incorporated into proteins in a cell, there is a need to develop improved and/or additional components of the biosynthetic machinery, e.g.; orthogonal tRNAs, orthogonal aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases and/or unique codons that can utilize a keto amino acid and that can be regenerated. This invention fulfills these and other needs, as will be apparent upon review of the following disclosure.